Kedatangan Bangsa-bangsa Eropa di Indonesia
Kedatangan Bangsa Portugis di Indonesia
Pada tahun 1509 utusan Bangsa Portugis bernama Diego Lopez Squeira tiba di Malaka menyampaikan surat kepercayaan kepada Sultan Mahmud Syah. Malaka menolak berdagang dengan Portugis. Pada tahun 1511 Portugis menyerang Malaka dipimpin Alfonso d’Albuquerque dan berhasil menduduki Malaka. Dengan menduduki/menguasai Malaka, Portugis memperoleh dua keuntungan yaitu:
– Portugis akan menguasai jalur perdagangan penting di Asia, termasuk perdagangan rempah-rempah.
– Malaka dapat dijadikan batu loncatan untuk menguasai perdagangan rempah-rempah di Maluku. Itulah sebabnya, Portugis membangun basis militer yang kuat di Malaka.
Pada tahun 1512, Bangsa Portugis di bawah pimpinan De Abreau berlayar menuju Maluku. Dalam pelayarannya, ia singgah di beberapa pelabuhan seperti Aceh, Banten, Sunda Kelapa, Cirebon, Demak, Gresik, dan akhirnya sampai di Ternate. Untuk beberapa lama, perdagangan antara Portugis dan Ternate berjalan lancar dan damai. Untuk meningkatkan hubungan antara Ternate dan Portugis, Ternate minta bantuan kepada Portugis agar mendirikan benteng di Ternate yang berguna untuk menghindarkan serangan musuh yakni Tidore. Benteng yang didirikan Portugis itu bernama Sao Paulo. Kesempatan itu dimanfaatkan pihak Portugis untuk mendapatkan monopoli perdagangan cengkih. Penerimaan baik itu dilatarbelakangi oleh persaingan antara Ternate dan Tidore.
Sejak Portugis membeli rempah-rempah langsung dari Maluku, bandar Lisabon (Lisboa) menjadi pusat perdagangan rempah-rempah dan komoditas lain yang berasal dari Hindia Timur. Dari Lisabon komoditas itu disebarkan ke seluruh Eropa, terutama oleh pedagang-pedagang Belanda. Kedudukan orang-orang Portugis di Ternate mulai goyah. Rupanya Kerajaan Ternate hanya memerlukan bantuan orangorang Portugis. Hal ini bertujuan untuk memperkuat pertahanan dalam menghadapi Kerajaan Tidore.
Akhirnya Ternate dan Tidore bersatu melawan Portugis pada tahun 1533. Mengapa? Karena Portugis melakukan monopoli perdagangan dan mengadakan penyebaran agama Nasrani. Portugis kalah, kemudian keluar dari Maluku dan menetap di Timor. Sebelum menetap di Timor, Portugis sempat mengincar ke daerah lain, yaitu:
a. Sumatra, dengan alasan mengincar hasil perkebunan lada. Tetapi Portugis tidak berhasil melakukan perdagangan biasa maupun monopoli perdagangan, karena kehadirannya ditentang oleh Kerajaan Aceh.
b. Di Jawa, orang-orang Portugis hanya dapat berdagang di daerah Blambangan dan Pasuruan. Alasannya di daerah-daerah Jawa lainnya telah dikuasai Kerajaan Demak, yang merupakan musuh Portugis.
Kedatangan Bangsa Spanyol di Indonesia
Pada tahun 1521, dua kapal ekspedisi Spanyol sampai di Maluku. Mereka datang dari Filipina dalam pelayaran kembali ke Spanyol melalui Kalimantan Utara. Ketika itu, di Maluku sedang terjadi persaingan antara Ternate dan Tidore. Untuk mengimbangi kekuatan Ternate yang didukung Portugis, Spanyol mendukung Tidore.
Keadaan ini mendapat protes dari Portugis karena dianggap melanggar Perjanjian Saragosa tahun 1528. Selain itu karena kalah kuat, persekutuan Tidore dan Spanyol dapat dilumpuhkan. Sejak tahun 1543, tidak ada lagi ekspedisi Spanyol ke Indonesia. Berdasarkan Perjanjian Tordesillas, kawasan Maluku hanya boleh dijelajahi Portugis, sedangkan Spanyol hanya sampai di Filipina.
Kedatangan Bangsa Inggris di Indonesia
Dalam menguasai perdagangan di Hindia Timur, ekspedisi Inggris tidak disponsori oleh pemerintah, melainkan oleh persekutuan dagang yang dinamakan East Indian Company (EIC). Persekutuan dagang itu merupakan gabungan para pengusaha London. Sejak tahun 1600, EIC memperoleh hak khusus dari pemerintah Inggris untuk menangani perdagangan di Hindia Timur. Dengan hak khusus tersebut, EIC memiliki wewenang penuh atas monopoli perdagangan di Hindia Timur.
Pada akhir abad ke-16, EIC mengadakan hubungan dagang dengan beberapa tempat di Indonesia seperti Aceh, Jayakarta, Banjar, Gowa, dan Maluku. Namun, karena terdesak oleh Belanda, akhirnya Inggris tersingkir dari kawasan Indonesia.
Kedatangan Bangsa Belanda di Indonesia
Setelah mendapat petunjuk dari Jan Hueygen Van Linschoeten, Bangsa Belanda mulai melakukan pelayaran. Untuk menghindari persaingan dengan Portugis, diusahakan pelayaran melalui utara, tetapi gagal. Kemudian dibentuklah Compagnie Van Vere oleh pengusaha-pengusaha Belanda.
Dari kongsi dagang tersebut dilakukan ekspedisi:
a. Tahun 1596, armada dagang Belanda dengan empat kapal dipimpin oleh Cornelis de Houtman datang di Banten. Kedatangan mereka disambut baik. Namun Belanda berambisi mendapat keuntungan besar. Akhirnya timbul perselisihan dengan rakyat dan penguasa Banten. Semua pelabuhan dagang di pantai utara Pulau Jawa ditutup bagi pedagang Belanda. Misi dagang de Houtman dianggap tidak berhasil.
b. Tahun 1598 misi dagang Belanda kedua dipimpin oleh Jacob van Neck dan Warwijk tiba di Banten. Kedatangannya disambut baik oleh penguasa, pedagang, dan rakyat Banten. Saat itu Banten sedang berselisih dengan Portugis.Keberhasilan pelayaran kedua ini mendorong para pengusaha/pedagang Belanda, berlomba-lomba datang ke Indonesia. Untuk menghindari persaingan antarpengusaha Belanda, atas anjuran Johan Olden Barneveld dibentuklah kongsi dagang Belanda di Hindia Timur yang dinamakan VOC (Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie).
VOC (Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie)
Pada tahun 1602, atas nasihat Johan van Olden Barneveld, bangsa Belanda mendirikan VOC (Verenigde Oost Indische Compagnie/Serikat Dagang Hindia Belanda) di Ambon pada tanggal 20 Maret 1602 dan pada tahun 1619 dipindahkan ke Batavia. Dengan modal pertama 6,5 milyar Gulden.
Tujuan pembentukan VOC adalah:
a. Untuk menghadapi persaingan antarpedagang Belanda agar mampu menghadapi saingan dengan bangsa lain.
b. Memonopoli perdagangan untuk mendapatkan keuntungan yang besar.
c. Membantu pemerintah Belanda yang sedang berperang dengan Spanyol.
Tahun 1602 VOC mempunyai hak octrooy atau izin untuk memonopoli perdagangan dari pemerintah Belanda. Wilayah monopoli dagang tersebut dimulai dari Tanjung Pengharapan (Afrika Selatan) sampai selat Magellan (Filipina). Dengan hak khusus tersebut, VOC menjadi lembaga pemerintah sekaligus perdagangan yang otonom di wilayah jajahan.
Itulah sebabnya, kehadiran VOC di wilayah jajahannya dipimpin oleh seorang Gubernur Jenderal, yang sekaligus termasuk Heeren Seventien (17 Pimpinan). Gubernur Jenderal menjalankan dua peran sekaligus yaitu sebagai direktur perusahaan dan pimpinan pemerintahan. Pimpinan tertinggi VOC di Hindia Timur.
Sejak tahun 1608 terdiri atas gubernur jenderal (mewakili pihak Kerajaan Belanda) dan Road van Indie (Dewan Hindia). Keduanya disebut “Hooge Regering” (Pemerintah tertinggi). Gubernur Jenderal pertama dijabat oleh Pieter Both (1610–1614). Ia berkantor di atas kapal yang berlabuh diperairan Ambon. Pieter Both berencana untuk memindahkan pusat kedudukan VOC ke Batavia (Jayakarta). Ini didasarkan pada beberapa pertimbangan antara lain:
a. Jayakarta lebih strategis dibandingkan dengan Ambon karena terletak di tengah jalur perdagangan Asia.
b. Dari Jayakarta, VOC akan lebih mudah menyingkirkan Portugis yang berkedudukan di Malaka.
Untuk melaksanakan tujuannya tersebut, Pieter Both meminta izin kepada Pangeran Jayakarta. Sebab Jayakarta termasuk wilayah kekuasaan Kerajaan Banten. Permintaan tersebut dikabulkan. Tetapi beberapa tahun kemudian, Pangeran Jayakarta juga memberi izin kepada EIC dari Inggris untuk mendirikan kantor dagangnya di Jayakarta. Akhirnya, terjadilah persaingan antara VOC dengan EIC.
Dalam suasana persaingan antara VOC dan EIC, terjadilah pergantian gubernur jenderal VOC. Pieter Both digantikan oleh Jan Pieterszoon Coen. Untuk menghadapi persaingan dengan EIC, ia mendirikan benteng di Jayakarta, bernama Batavia. Kemudian VOC menghasut penguasa Banten Ranamenggala untuk memecat Pangeran Jayakarta, sekaligus menutup izin dagang EIC.
Akhirnya sejak tanggal 31 Mei 1619, VOC memperoleh hak penuh atas Jayakarta. Sejak saat itu pula nama Jayakarta diubah namanya menjadi Batavia, karena kota Jayakarta telah banyak yang rusak akibat pertempuran dengan Banten. Dalam pelaksanaan monopoli perdagangan, VOC mengambil beberapa tindakan. Diantaranya:
– Pelayaran Hongi: patroli dengan menggunakan perahu kora-kora, yang dilengkapi dengan senjata untuk mengawasi pelaksanaan monopoli di Maluku.
– Hak ekstripasi: hukuman terhadap para pelanggar aturan monopoli.
Masa kejayaan VOC pelan-pelan memudar. Pegawai-pegawai VOC banyak yang melakukan korupsi. Selain itu adanya saingan dari bangsa lain yaitu Prancis dan Inggris, dalam melakukan monopoli rempah-rempah. Pemberian deviden kepada para pemegang saham. Akhirnya usaha yang dilakukan VOC mengalami kerugian, sementara mengakibatkan jumlah biaya yang dikeluarkan cukup tinggi.
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